Evolution theory
1 Darwinism vs. Lamarckism
2 Origin of the Elements
3 Radiometric Dating
4 Geological Discontinuity
5 Missing links
6 Irreducible Complexity
7 Genes and Information
8 Genetic Variation
9 Reproduction
10 Natural Wonders
11 Other Phenomena
12 Conclusion
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1 Darwinism vs. Lamarckism
Before the theory of evolution emerged, people generally believed that the world came into being by God and that God created every living being individually and immutably. The so-called theory of evolution was essentially shaped by two people: Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829) and Charles Darwin (1809-1882). Darwin and Lamarck lived at almost the same time but had different ideas about how living things on Earth evolved.
Darwin believed that all animal and plant species evolved from simple to complex organisms over long periods of time, and that this evolution was due to undirected natural forces—namely, time, chance, and natural selection. Darwin compared this process to a tree. Darwin believed that those species best adapted to their environment would survive and be able to pass on their traits to their offspring.
Lamarck, on the other hand, assumed that living beings change through the use or disuse of organs, and that these changes are then passed on to their offspring. According to Lamarck, living beings have a natural drive for perfection that drives them to strive for further development. While frequently used body parts or organs would be more developed, those that are used less or rarely would gradually deteriorate.
Unlike scientists before their time, neither Darwin nor Lamarck believed in the immutability of species. Darwin, who was both a biologist and a theologian, recognized that natural variation exists among different animal species. However, since Darwin knew nothing about genetics, he concluded that animal species must have evolved over a long period of time. Darwin's major work is entitled "On the Origin of Species." It was published on November 24, 1859, and is still considered a fundamental work of evolutionary biology.
Some atheists took up Darwin's ideas and eventually claimed that all life on Earth arose spontaneously, without the intervention of an intelligent creator. The theory of evolution has dominated science for over 150 years. It has been the dominant paradigm in biology ever since and remains deeply ingrained in our society's consciousness to this day.
2 Origin of the Elements
It is taught that the Big Bang created a so-called quark soup. These quarks (= smallest particles in the universe) are said to have combined to form simple atoms like hydrogen and helium, and the resulting gases in turn combined to form stars. In the process, the atoms are said to have fused together in the stars, creating all the other elements in the periodic table. In order for the elements in the star to be able to spread throughout the universe, the star had to explode. The now freely floating elements are said to have combined to form planets, ultimately creating everything necessary for life to develop on Earth.
For stars to form, gas is needed. This gas must contract and gravitate under enormous pressure so that the atoms in the gas can fuse. This, in turn, requires cold. However, gas that is in a space with nothing expands. It can be assumed that an explosion in the context of a Big Bang would produce enormous amounts of energy, without being able to explain where this energy came from. Due to this heat, the resulting gas would expand even further. This previously described process of star formation has never been observed by researchers. Therefore, it is and remains pure, unproven theory.
3 Radiometric Dating
To determine the age of various elements, scientists use radiometric dating as a measuring instrument. This is based on the so-called isotope principle. Every radioactive material—such as volcanic rock—contains radioactive isotopes. These consist of a so-called parent isotope. When this decays, so-called daughter isotopes are formed. The ratio of parent to daughter isotopes is then compared to determine how old something is based on the decay rate of an element. With the help of this instrument—scientists claim—one could measure the age of all fossils found in the Earth's geological layers. However, for this system to work, certain conditions must be met:
1 - The decay rate must always be constant; similar to the movement of a clock's hands.
In fact, the decay rate is not always constant. For example, with increased solar activity, more neutrons are released. When hydrogen absorbs one of them, it becomes carbon-14 (C14). This, in turn, has a different decay rate than normal hydrogen (H2). This circumstance applies to over 50 other elements in the periodic table that are not taken into account in conventional radiometric calculations. Their half-lives are therefore not constant.
2 - When the rock was formed, only the parent isotope must be present; no daughter isotopes.
Freshly formed volcanic rock should be dateable to zero after being sampled. However, this is not the case. Although the rock was formed recently, the measurement ranges from several thousand to several million years.
3 - It must be a closed system, meaning the material's composition must not change.
Erosion and other natural processes can change the composition of a rock. Some substances may dissolve and others may be added. This, too, can significantly influence the dating results.
When dating fossils and geological strata, the age of the fossils is used to determine the age of the geological strata, and vice versa. However, there are no absolute numbers, as no one can determine how and when a rock was actually formed in the past.
This is also demonstrated by an article published in Spiegel Online in 2004. In this article, the ages of various hominids (humans) that had previously been measured were re-dated using the carbon-14 method. Surprisingly, the figures resulting from the re-dating sometimes differ dramatically from the values of the initial measurements, so that some fossils were suddenly up to 20,000 years younger than previously assumed.
Consequently, the data collected by the radiocarbon method, which is used to determine the age of the Earth and fossils to this day, must be considered unreliable or even useless. In addition, the dates of geological ages are constantly being altered and arbitrarily shifted by researchers. It's not uncommon for hundreds of millions of years to be summarily erased when this better fits the theory. This fact also proves that scientific time estimates are not trustworthy.
4 Geological Discontinuity
Given the long period of time over which geological layers are supposed to have formed, there should be clear signs of erosion between them. In fact, however, no erosion channels between the individual layers can be seen anywhere in the world. All of them are completely flat and lie on top of each other like sheets of glass. A closer examination of geological layers reveals that some of them are present in certain mountain ranges but not in others. Even within the same mountain range, layers can be present in some places while being absent in others. If an entire layer or parts of a layer—which, according to evolutionary researchers, represents an age that can span several million years—are completely missing, this means that the several million years of time that have passed cannot be detected. This would invalidate the theory of evolution. To solve this problem, it is claimed that the missing layers were erased by erosion and washed away in large quantities before the next layer could form. However, this is countered by the fact that erosion usually leaves behind irregularly shaped landscapes, making it possible to clearly identify where the erosion occurred. Erosion thus leaves clearly detectable traces. But even in this case, there is not the slightest sign of erosion between the geological layers.
5 Missing Links
To date, despite enormous efforts, no organisms have been found that demonstrate the transition from one species to another. Indeed, if, according to science, all geological strata were slowly deposited over millions of years, they should be teeming with fossils proving the existence of intermediate forms. In reality, however, only fully developed species have been excavated so far. This applies to both animal and human fossils and demonstrates that all these organisms existed simultaneously and were already fully developed in all their complexity.
The generally accepted biology textbooks, which are still used in schools today, show supposed family trees of various animal species. It is striking that there are usually no images of the intermediate forms that would allow the progressive development of the organisms to be understood. Those specimens presented as intermediate forms were largely reconstructed by researchers from tiny fossil fragments of skulls, jaws, and other bone parts and visualized using modern computer programs. These reconstructions, in turn, arise from the researchers' imaginations. In other cases, the fossils of animals, some extinct and some still existing today, are used as intermediate forms, without any evidence of any relationship between the species. Since animal variation was far greater in the past than it is today, scientists have a wider choice from which to construct family trees as they see fit. Evolutionary family trees therefore remain nothing more than pure speculation on the part of the researchers.
All modern animal phyla first appeared simultaneously in the so-called Cambrian period. For this reason, scientists refer to the so-called "Cambrian Explosion." No specimens exist that indicate a precursor or intermediate stage. Instead, individual animal and plant species are found unchanged in all geological strata in which they occur. This fact also contradicts the theory that living things have common ancestors. While Darwin originally assumed that organisms evolved slowly over a long period of time, so-called Neo-Darwinists claim that the evolution of animal and plant species occurred in bursts over relatively short periods of time. But there is not the slightest evidence for this either.
6 Irreducible Complexity
Irreducible complexity is a term that describes the fact that complex systems (such as an organism) require all their individual parts to function. In other words, it is not possible to reduce or simplify the complexity of an irreducibly complex system by removing one or more of its components without compromising its functionality.
In every cell, we are dealing with the interplay of numerous components. If one component is removed, the entire system loses its function. Cell DNA contains the highly complex blueprints for all proteins. It stores enormous amounts of information in a very small space. This information is processed by various molecular machines. Every cell consists of a series of essential, coordinated components without which it would be unable to function, so spontaneous, random formation can be ruled out. Even more and more scientists are admitting this.
A frequently cited example of an irreducibly complex system is the flagellar system of the E. coli bacterium. This flagella, which rotates at up to 100,000 times per minute, is described by many scientists as the most efficient machine in the entire universe. The distinctive feature of E. coli bacteria is a microscopically small yet highly complex outboard motor with which the bacteria propel themselves. This consists of individual, integrated parts, similar to those of a motorboat. These include a stator, a rotor, a drive shaft, a U-joint, and a propeller, which allows the bacterium to move in all directions. If even one of these parts is removed, the entire system becomes unusable. Since the system only functions when all the individual parts are present and in the right place, chance and evolution are ruled out as explanations for a long time.
In addition, natural selection can only be effective if it finds a fully functional flagellum. If a tail were to develop by chance in one out of every hundred bacteria, it would be useless and would offer no selective advantage to the bacterium unless there was a simultaneous drive to make the tail motile. Consequently, the tail would be immediately eliminated by natural selection. The same applies to every other complex organ. To date, researchers have yet to provide evidence that the formation of the individual components and their assembly into a complex and functional structure can be traced back to natural mechanisms.
It's similar with upright walking in humans. Here, too, a simultaneous and precisely coordinated change in several components would be required, making chance a highly implausible explanation. The same applies to the cardiovascular system, the digestive and excretory systems, and the musculoskeletal system in general. Even within an organ, all features must be perfectly coordinated to ensure smooth function. Darwin himself admitted that his theory would collapse if it could be shown that a complex organ existed that could not have formed through several successive, minor changes. But that is precisely the case with all organs. Darwin thus declares his own theory refuted.
7 Genes and Information
Genetic research, which began in the 17th century, shed new light on the question of the origin of life. In the process, science discovered that the creation and formation of matter is controlled by information. The same applies to all processes and functions within an organism. Information itself is non-material (immaterial) and therefore cannot arise from matter. Matter, in turn, cannot arise without information. The origin of information therefore presupposes intelligence, which leaves an intelligent creator as the only possible explanation.
Comparing nature with a complex technical device reveals interesting parallels: Both combine complexity, functionality, fine-tuning, and aesthetics. It's no coincidence that many technical inventions are modeled on nature.
To illustrate the complexity of genetic processes in an organism's body, let's consider the example of an automobile: To construct a roadworthy car, you first need a blueprint. For the car to ultimately function perfectly, the blueprint for the vehicle must be absolutely flawless. Everything must be precisely coordinated. To design a functional car and create the complete and correct blueprint for it, you need an intelligent engineer. To know whether the car is roadworthy, it must first be built. For this, all necessary components (approximately 10,000) such as the engine, cylinders, body, wheels, screws, cables, etc., must be precisely prefabricated. This, in turn, requires the availability of all necessary raw materials. To assemble the individual parts according to plan, a factory with a complex infrastructure is required. This includes, among other things, machines programmed according to blueprints. These, too, must be built by intelligent engineers. Only when the blueprint, machines, workers, and all necessary parts are available can the actual construction process begin.
First, someone is needed to open the blueprint, read the information it contains, and understand it. Next, someone is needed to implement what they have read, step by step, i.e., to manufacture the required components and assemble them according to the plan. The individual parts must be placed in the correct, designated locations. Furthermore, all parts must be networked and linked to a central control system so that they can be operated later. Furthermore, someone is needed to monitor and control the entire production process. In order to subsequently improve or further develop the car, if necessary, human intelligence is required. No rational person would think of claiming that this highly complex process can be explained by chance. If, on the other hand, we consider the processes in a living cell, we see how much more complex these processes are than the production of an automobile.
Every living organism is made up of proteins. Each protein is formed from DNA information. DNA consists of a double helix of amino acids. Amino acids, in turn, are made up of pairs of bases. The bases are designated by the letters A, C, T, and G, which, when combined in a specific order, form a protein.
Every protein has its own unique blueprint, or chemical code. The complete human genome (genetic material) contains approximately 3 billion pieces of information. This unique phenomenon, which represents the most complex and efficient storage and transmission medium for information in the entire universe, cannot be explained by random processes. Amino acids are incapable of arranging themselves in meaningful sequences on their own. The genetic codes of DNA are one of the most compelling pieces of evidence for the existence of a higher intelligence.
In a process called transcription, a molecular machine (an enzyme controlled by specific genes) first unwinds a section of the DNA helix to reveal the genetic instructions needed to make a protein. Another machine creates a replication (an exact mirror-image photocopy of the instructions) by producing a molecule called messenger RNA. Once transcription is complete, the RNA strand transports the information through the nuclear pore complex, a set of channels that regulates the import and export of proteins from the nucleus. The messenger RNA strand is then transported to the ribosome (a two-part protein factory), where it is securely fastened. Then, the process of translation begins. In the ribosome, a molecular assembly line assembles a specifically ordered chain of amino acids. These are brought in from other parts of the cell and added to the chain, which often has hundreds of links. Their sequence is determined by the type of protein being produced. The finished chain passes from the ribosome into a barrel-shaped machine that helps it fold into the precise shape required for its function. After the chain's folding is complete, the finished protein detaches and is guided by another molecular machine to its precise location.
This fascinating process, coordinated down to the last detail, cannot be explained without intelligence as its initiator. If the construction of a technical object such as an automobile rules out chance as a cause, how much more so the emergence of a far more complex cell or a multicellular organism. It is highly unlikely that even a single coherent sentence could be formed by dropping wooden blocks printed with letters onto a tabletop. Representing the genetic instructions necessary to produce the proteins of a single-celled organism would require several hundred pages of printed paper with 100% error-free coding. Therefore, more and more atheist scientists are recognizing that this immense complexity can only be explained by an intelligent Creator as its initiator.
8 Genetic Variation
Darwin attributed the diversity of animals and plants to evolution. Thanks to modern genetic research, we now know that this diversity is genetically determined. According to this theory, every organism is equipped with specific genes that determine who or what that organism is. These genes are determined during reproduction and are activated or deactivated by environmental conditions (such as light and weather conditions or the availability of food). The switching on and off of genes causes living beings to change in a specific way. This assumes that all genes in the organisms have been present from the beginning.
Science distinguishes between so-called genotypes and phenotypes. The genotype describes the total number of all genes present within an organism. The phenotype describes those genes that are expressed in the organism at a specific time. This means that every human, every animal, and every plant possesses far more genes than are visible from the outside. This principle can be illustrated using the example of a wolf: Everyone knows that the many dog breeds did not come about through evolutionary development, but are the result of breeding and inbreeding. Dog breeds are the expression of the wolf's genetic variation possibilities. The genes for the different variants were already fully present in the wolf; otherwise, breeding would not be possible. Therefore, no new genetic information is created here. The same applies to all animal and plant species on Earth. Another example is the transformation process of a caterpillar into a butterfly: For a caterpillar to transform into a butterfly, both the genes for "caterpillar" and the genes for "butterfly" must be present in the caterpillar. In the caterpillar stage, the genes for caterpillar are switched on, while the genes for butterfly are switched off, i.e., inactive. Once the caterpillar pupates, a metamorphosis (transformation) takes place. During this process, the genes for caterpillar are deactivated and the genes for butterfly are activated. This does not involve a change in the genetic information, but rather an activation or deactivation of genes.
Genetic variation encompasses shape, size, fur or skin color, as well as the organs and internal functions of an organism. Dogs, horses, and birds exhibit a diverse range of shapes and colors. This, in turn, is not the result of evolution, but rather an expression of genetic variation. In some beetles, the color and pattern of their carapace changes with the changing seasons. The mountain hare and snow fox, which change their fur color at certain times of the year, or lizards and insects, which can adapt their coloring to their surroundings, are also not products of evolution. As with animals and plants, the different human races arise from genetic variation. Here, too, all the genes that enable variation must have been present from the beginning. This also means that all humans—regardless of their appearance or skin color—are essentially equal, and that no human race has any selective advantage over another, as one might assume based on evolutionary theory. The diversity that God has created should serve to enjoy the differences within creation and to praise God for it.
Some members of certain animal species have reduced body parts, unlike their conspecifics. This includes birds that live on islands and lack wings. Since these are no longer needed, the corresponding genes are deactivated. Other animals, such as the blind cavefish and the blind cave crab, have neither eyes nor pigment. Here, too, certain genes are deactivated – in this case due to the lack of daylight – because they are not needed in their specific habitat. This is not evolution, but degeneration, in which superfluous organs are broken down. This process can take place within one or a few generations and can possibly be reversed over several generations. Such a reduction can also be observed in various parasites. While all body parts are visible and usable in the early stages of their lives, they degenerate as soon as the animal penetrates a host and the organs lose their function.
9 Reproduction
Humans, like most animal species, consist of males and females. The possibility that the biological sexes arose genetically by chance and independently of one another is mathematically impossible. A human has a total of 46 chromosomes. 23 of these come from the mother and 23 from the father. When a gene exchange occurs, the number of chromosomes must first be reduced or halved, since not all of them can fit into the egg cell. In biology, this process is called meiosis.
During meiosis, the chromosomes of males and females lie next to each other and divide into chromatids. This involves an exchange of genetic information. This process is scientifically known as segregation. At some points, the limbs of the chromatids cross over. This process is called crossing over. The resulting end product contains a mixture of genes from the father and mother. The transfer of genes must occur with absolute precision and without errors, otherwise no life can be conceived or the conceived life can be permanently damaged. Here, too, the genes that control the entire fertilization process must have existed from the outset. Likewise, the sperm and egg cells in both males and females must already have been present and precisely matched to one another in both their composition and specific function, otherwise fertilization and therefore no production of offspring would be possible. Furthermore, to avoid extinction, the first cell would have had to have been capable of reproducing within a short period of time, which is highly implausible. Atheistic science has no plausible answer to any of these facts.
10 Natural Wonders
The human body has a total of 79 organs (digestive system with mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas; cardiovascular system with heart, blood, and blood vessels; respiratory system with lungs, trachea, and nose; nervous system with brain, spinal cord, kidneys, and sensory organs). All components of the human body exhibit a high and at the same time irreducible complexity. They are both internally consistent and optimally coordinated with one another. Their connection with the brain is what enables them to function. All together, they form an absolutely finely tuned and harmonious whole: the human being. Each individual organ is rightly described by science as a miracle. Can so many miracles be the product of chance?
The Brain
Human being's most important organ
Processes highly differentiated sensory impressions, coordinates complex behaviors, and controls vital basic functions in the body such as heartbeat and breathing
Consists of approximately 100 billion individual nerve cells (neurons)
The nerve cells are connected to each other by over 1 trillion synapses
Each neuron is networked with up to 30,000 others
The nerve pathways measure approximately 6 million kilometers
The speed of electrical impulses through nerve pathways in the brain is 350 km/h
Can store approximately 30 million gigabytes of data
The Heart
A vital organ
Pumps blood through arteries and veins throughout the body (approximately 8,000 liters per day, or 400 million liters over a lifetime)
Beats approximately 70 times per minute (100,000 times per day throughout a lifetime)
Adjusts rhythm to the current beat force required (rapid beating in times of danger or physical exertion allows for the transport of more oxygen and nutrients)
The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, where carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen
The left ventricle pumps fresh blood to all parts of the body
Blood collects in the atrium to be pumped further in pulses
Heart valves prevent backflow of blood
The Eye
Both eyes contain 132 million photoreceptors
Approximately 1 million chemical reactions per second
Processing approximately 35,000 impressions per hour
Enables spatial orientation, differentiation of shapes, 7 million colors, movement, speed, distance, as well as the recognition of people and complex situations
The complex structure and function of the eye is comparable to that of a camera
Cells
Approximately 100 trillion cells in the body
100 to 200 billion cells are replaced by new ones every year
Sensory cells can perceive and distinguish approximately 10,000 different smells and five tastes
The skin
2 square meters in size and weighing up to 10 kilograms
is renewed every 120 days
contains millions of cells as well as pain, pressure, and temperature receptors, 15 sebaceous glands, 100 sweat glands, 4 meters of nerve fibers, and 1 meter of blood vessels
Bones and Muscles
212 bones, 656 muscles, approximately 400 tendons, and countless cartilages
The Lungs
enable breathing and ensure that oxygen from the air we breathe is transported to the entire body via the blood.
100 square meter surface area
contain over 300 million alveoli
The Liver
Central organ for metabolism
Stores vital nutrients and cleanses the blood of toxins
Approximately 2,000 liters of blood are pumped through the liver every day (1.5 liters per minute)
Is capable of regeneration (removed parts of the organ can grow back)
The Hand
Consists of 27 bones, 29 joints, approximately 123 ligaments, 48 nerves, and 30 arteries.
Nerve pathways enable different surface and temperature sensations.
More wonders of nature
The fusion of egg and sperm creates a new human being. One ejaculation can contain up to 400 million sperm. The composition of the Earth's atmosphere allows for life under tolerable climatic conditions. Clouds transport thousands of tons of water for miles. This water falls to Earth as rain, giving rise to new life. After the water seeps into the ground, it rises again from a spring before some of it evaporates due to sunlight and condenses into clouds in the higher atmosphere. Wounds heal and cells regenerate. Plants use light, CO2, and water to produce vital oxygen. All edible fruits and vegetables contain nutrients precisely tailored to human needs.
All coincidence or design?
11 Other Phenomena
Nature is full of phenomena that cannot be explained in evolutionary terms, as they arise neither from matter nor energy, have no purpose in terms of species preservation and sometimes even contradict the basic idea of the theory of evolution. These include, among others, symbiotic systems that ensure the coexistence of different animal and plant species for mutual benefit or in mutual dependence (see insects and flowering plants / ants and aphids / stomach and intestinal bacteria / algae and fungi / plants and between nodule bacteria / cleaner fish and many more).
12 Conclusion
Numerous scientific efforts to explain the origin and complexity of life through chance and evolution fail due to a lack of evidence and thus remain nothing more than hypotheses. The Big Bang and evolutionary theories are not the result of scientifically sound knowledge of nature, but rather the only remaining, and purely theoretical, attempt to explain the origin of the universe if one denies the existence of an intelligent Creator as its origin. The claim that chance is the cause of all complex life forms on this planet is highly implausible.
God is neither comprehensible to the human mind, nor can the existence of a Creator be scientifically disproven. Although we cannot see God, His presence is clearly evident in His works—the beauty, complexity, and perfect order expressed in the universe and nature. The more science discovers about creation, the more the greatness and glory of this ingenious Designer are highlighted.
In addition, in the beginning, the driving force behind natural science was not atheism, but rather the belief in an almighty Creator. Therefore, it is no coincidence that many of history's most brilliant scientists, such as Einstein, Newton, and Galileo, whose scientific discoveries significantly advanced technological development, were religious believers (See: Scientists about God).
The widespread assumption to this day that faith and science are opposites and that serious science must be fundamentally atheistic is wrong. Just as one cannot separate an inventor from his invention, so too cannot science and God be separated. The task of science is not to prove a particular dogma like evolution, but to discover the truth. This requires unbiased and open-ended research. Instead of postulating an ideological agenda that a priori excludes God as the creator and cause of the universe, it should consider every possible explanation for the origin of life—including the one to which all the evidence in creation points: -> God.